In Germany, on the other hand, a great many young scientists and technicians who would have been of great use to such a project were conscripted into the German armed forces, while others had fled the country before the war due to antisemitism and political persecution.[112][113][114]. Von Ardenne attracted top-notch personnel to work in his facility, such as the nuclear physicist Fritz Houtermans, in 1940. [72], Near the end of World War II, the principal Allied war powers each made plans for exploitation of German science. Unconditional government support from a certain point in time. So a few years ago the US government decided to modernize its nuclear arsenals in Europe with a multibillion-dollar program. (…) All allies agreed that, as long as there are nuclear weapons, NATO will remain a nuclear alliance”. T he Federal Republic of Germany has been home to a portion of nato ’s nuclear weapons since the Cold War. The increasing geopolitical competition between the nuclear weapons states, the development of new types of weapons, the combination of conventional and nuclear deterrent potential and the continuing modernisation and diversification of nuclear weapons arsenals is leading to new arms races. [45] Eight students, assistants, and colleagues of the Göttingen theoretical physicist Max Born left Europe after Hitler came to power and eventually found work on the Manhattan Project, thus helping the United States, Britain and Canada to develop the atomic bomb; they were Enrico Fermi,[49] James Franck, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Robert Oppenheimer (who was American, but had studied under Born), Edward Teller, Victor Weisskopf, Eugene Wigner, and John von Neumann. A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the project. The prior discussion can only lead to one conclusion: A Germany armed with nuclear bombs … It went … Instead of buying expensive American fighter jets to deliver nuclear weapons, he says, Germany should be an advocate for arms control and disarmament. They had the classification (uk) not (uk, indispensable) and not even Kurt Diebner, managing director of the KWIP, could stop their call-up. [83], With the interest of the Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office), Nikolaus Riehl, and his colleague Günter Wirths, set up an industrial-scale production of high-purity uranium oxide at the Auergesellschaft plant in Oranienburg. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Schumann. Speer felt it was better that the whole thing should be dropped and the Führer also reacted that way." It could not develop them as war-winning weapons, both because of the demands of … The Tornado fighter-bombers stationed in Büchel, which are able to deliver the old nuclear weapons, would then have to be refitted for the new ones. It went through several phases of work, but in the words of a historian, it was ultimately "frozen at the laboratory level" with the "modest goal" to "build a nuclear reactor which could sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction for a significant amount of time and to achieve the complete separation of at least tiny amount of the uranium isotopes." Eventually it was assessed that nuclear fission would not contribute significantly to ending the war, and in January 1942, the Heereswaffenamt turned the program over to the Reich Research Council (Reichsforschungsrat) while continuing to fund the program. Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. A few years after Adenauer left office, Germany ratified the 1968 nuclear non-proliferation treaty, which bars it from developing atomic weapons. Germany will abandon plans to … Tehran was using front companies to deceive German firms into selling dual-use equipment and sanctioned WMD technology, the intelligence service of Germany’s Hesse state disclosed in its annual … Concern about German nuclear weapons potential stretched back to World War II, when Nazi Germany conducted an atomic bomb project, and forward to 1954, when Western allies ended the military occupation of Germany and brought West Germany into NATO in tandem with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer’s commitment not to produce nuclear weapons. Numerically, it has been estimated that a total of 1,145 university teachers, in all fields, were driven from their posts, which represented about 14% of the higher learning institutional staff members in 1932–1933. In December 1938, German chemist Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to the German science journal Naturwissenschaften ("Natural Sciences") reporting that they had detected and identified the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. [25], On 4 June 1942, a conference regarding the project, initiated by Albert Speer as head of the "Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition" (RMBM: Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Munition; after late 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production), decided on its continuation merely for the aim of energy production. A strong initial drive, by a small group of scientists, to launch the project. 2, in Moscow, and included Yulij Borisovich Khariton, Isaak Konstantinovich Kikoin, and Lev Andreevich Artsimovich. Zimmer's path to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project was through a prisoner of war camp in Krasnogorsk, as was that of his colleagues Hans-Joachim Born and Alexander Catsch from the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung (KWIH, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research, today the Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung), who worked there for N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij, director of the Abteilung für Experimentelle Genetik (Department of Experimental Genetics). See also Manfred von Ardenne, Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix E; see the entry for, An Italian working in Rome, Fermi left after anti-semitic policies were introduced in Italy, The eight students, assistants, and colleagues of the theoretical physicist Max Born who left Europe found work on the. During his imprisonment, the spectroscopist Hermann Schüler [de] , who had a better relationship with the French, persuaded the French to appoint him as Deputy Director of the KWIP. Their information policy is neither to confirm nor to deny the presence of nuclear weapons in specific locations. [53][54][55][56][57], Politicization of the academic community, combined with the impact of the Deutsche Physik movement, and other policies such as drafting physicists to fight in the war, had the net effect of bringing about a missing generation of physicists. In addition, some parts of the German government fear they will lose influence when it comes to the planning of these weapons if the US nuclear arsenal is withdrawn, he said. It was in effect broken up between institutes where the different directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas. At the close of the war, physicists born between 1915 and 1925 were almost nonexistent. The seven power stations still in … Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Thiessen. American bombs are guarded by American soldiers at the German base, but in theory, in the event of a conflict, can be transferred to the crews and aircraft of the German armed forces. [61] Essentially, they would have to legitimize the National Socialist system by compromise and collaboration.[62]. The group's work was discontinued in August 1939, when the three were called to military training.[8][9][10][11]. He was also head of the research department of the HWA, assistant secretary of the Science Department of the OKW, and Bevollmächtigter (plenipotentiary) for high explosives. [93][94][95][96], At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and obtain equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the Soviet atomic bomb project. "[17] So we turned the slogan around to make use of warfare for physics not "make use of physics for warfare. The US has had nuclear weapons in Germany for decades, many dating back to the Cold War, when they were seen as a deterrent against Russia. This was picked up by Manfred von Ardenne, who ran a private research establishment. They are a concrete threat to Germany and Europe. When the arrangement was first made, some feared that Germany would break the deal with nato and use the weapons for its own interest. Perhaps it has become even more difficult. The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty's selection and that of both the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Education Ministry) and the supporters of Deutsche Physik. Arguments for German acquisition of nuclear weapons have gained no traction among German decision makers, as this would require multiple costly and radical shifts of … In June 1942, some six months before the American Chicago Pile-1 achieved man-made criticality for the first time anywhere, Döpel's "Uran-Maschine" was destroyed by a chemical explosion introduced by oxygen,[118] which finished the work on this topic at Leipzig. The United States government became aware of the German nuclear program in August 1939, when Albert Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt, warning \"that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated.\" The United States was in a race to develop an atomic bomb believing whoever had the b… The politicization of the education system essentially replaced academic tradition and excellence with ideological adherence and trappings, such as membership in National Socialist organizations, such as the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP, National Socialist German Workers Party), the Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Dozentenbund (NSDDB, National Socialist German University Lecturers League), and the Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (NSDStB, National Socialist German Student League). [10][11][16], Heisenberg said in 1939 that the physicists at the (second) meeting said that "in principle atomic bombs could be made.... it would take years.... not before five." Now these "ambassadors against nuclear weapons" are fighting for disarmament - and have stopped in Hamburg on their round-the-world boat trip. to meeting all four of the following conditions:[105]. Attachment III: The Crucial Importance of Theoretical Physics and Particularly Modern Theoretical Physics. May 3, 2020 10:57 pm. By the end of the war, the number recalled had reached 15,000. The base houses B61 nuclear bombs of … Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Cited in Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, p. 279, but omitted from the anthology. The chances of purchasing the new aircraft and extending Germany’s participation in nuclear sharing would be highest if a (less-likely) coalition between the CDU and the Free Democratic Party was formed. (16.07.2015), They experienced the atomic bombing of Japan firsthand. In the past, pressure from civil society has not been strong enough to significantly influence government policies regarding TNW withd… The Münchner Religionsgespräche was an offensive against deutsche Physik. She spent a lot of time here, in the Eifel region near the French border, in the spring. ", (June 2008) Annotated bibliography on the German atomic bomb project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues, Institute for Physics Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Universität Hamburg, Department of Physical Chemistry, Universität Leipzig, Institute for Physics; Institute for Theoretical Physics, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_nuclear_weapons_program&oldid=992468204, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2020, Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. 50 on p. 372. The German nuclear weapons programme was an unsuccessful scientific effort to research and develop atomic weapons during World War 2. Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte as members of the Uranverein[82] were picked up by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon: Erich Bagge, Kurt Diebner, Walther Gerlach, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Werner Heisenberg, Horst Korsching, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and Karl Wirtz. Also see footnote No. Targets on the top of their list were the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics), the Frederick William University (today, the University of Berlin), and the Technische Hochschule Berlin (today, the Technische Universität Berlin (Technical University of Berlin).[97][98][99]. Max Planck, the father of quantum theory, had been right in assessing the consequences of National Socialist policies. Total, the Manhattan Project involved the labor of some 500,000 people, nearly 1% of the entire US civilian labor force. It will ask the US to remove its nuclear weapons from German soil. This discovery showed the German government that weapons of mass destruction could be created from relatively small matter, Uranium, leading them to create the First Uranverein. In the final analysis, placing the RFR under Göring's administrative control had little effect on the German nuclear weapon project. [66] Also, in part, it was Finkelnburg's role in organising this event that influenced Carl Ramsauer, as president of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, to select Finkelnburg in 1941 as his deputy. There were three names on the list: Werner Heisenberg, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932, Peter Debye, who would receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936, and Richard Becker – all former students of Sommerfeld. [104], The United States, British, and Canadian governments worked together to create the Manhattan Project that developed the uranium and plutonium atomic bombs. Berlin has accepted that it cannot expect withdrawal of US nuclear weapons in the coming years, Nassauer said. From the political perspective however, nuclear sharing is still important for the credibility of nuclear deterrence in Europe and for NATO’s cohesion. Georgij Nikolaevich Flerov had arrived earlier, although Kikoin did not recall a vanguard group. However, by the summer of 1943, Speer released the remaining 1200 metric tons of uranium stock for the production of solid-core ammunition. This was the case of Finkelnburg. During the meeting, Planck told Hitler that forcing Jewish scientists to emigrate would mutilate Germany and the benefits of their work would go to foreign countries. [5] Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. Whereas the Social Democratic Party (SPD) had affirmed nuclear power in 1979, in August 1986 it passed a resolution to abandon nuclear power within ten years. First, Germany’s plan to shut all its nuclear reactors by 2022, a decision taken after the Fukushima accident in 2011, has to be revoked. The German nuclear weapons program (German: Uranprojekt; informally known as the Uranverein; English: Uranium Club) was an unsuccessful scientific effort led by Germany to research and develop atomic weapons during World War II. Yet nuclear weapons programs continue to the present day. We use cookies to improve our service for you. Graphite (carbon) as an alternative was not considered as Walther Bothe's neutron absorption coefficient value for carbon was too high; probably due to the boron in the graphite pieces having high neutron absorption. Abraham Esau was appointed on 8 December 1942 as Hermann Göring's Bevollmächtigter (plenipotentiary) for nuclear physics research under the RFR; in December 1943, Esau was replaced by Walther Gerlach. [46] Qualitatively, 11 physicists and four chemists who had won or would win the Nobel Prize emigrated from Germany shortly after Hitler came to power, most of them in 1933. American military documents leave no doubt. The exploitation teams were under the Soviet Alsos and they were headed by Lavrentij Beria's deputy, Colonel General A. P. Zavenyagin. The production of heavy water was already under way in Norway when the Germans invaded on 9 April 1940. Iran and other rogue states are covertly working to acquire German technology for making nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, Germany’s prominent intelligence agency confirmed on Friday. The program eventually expanded into three main efforts: the Uranmaschine (nuclear reactor), uranium and heavy water production, and uranium isotope separation. The HWA was interested and Riehl committed corporate resources to the task. One such attack was published in Das Schwarze Korps, the newspaper of the Schutzstaffel, or SS, headed by Heinrich Himmler. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. The HWA eventually provided an order for the production of uranium oxide, which took place in the Auergesellschaft plant in Oranienburg, north of Berlin. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, 369, Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft). GERMANY is debating whether it is time to become a nuclear nation. The application of nuclear technology, as a source of energy and as an instrument of war, has been controversial. Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator), Albrecht, Ulrich, Andreas Heinemann-Grüder, and Arend Wellmann, Heisenberg, Werner, introduction by David Cassidy, translation by William Sweet, Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker (editors), This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 12:27. The French occupation policy was not qualitatively different from that of the American and Soviet occupation forces, it was just carried out on a smaller scale. But the deployment of US nuclear weapons in Europe, including Germany, is an open secret. The invitees included Walther Bothe, Siegfried Flügge, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Gerhard Hoffmann, Josef Mattauch, and Georg Stetter. The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with Heisenberg as their first choice. "Those are the Tornadoes on their training flights again," she said as the noise from the fighter jets died down. However, this policy faltered after the Chernobyl accident in 1986, and the last new nuclear power plant was commissioned in 1989. In their previous coalition agreement with the Free Democrats in 2009, the Christian Democrats set this as a … [70] Finkelnburg served in this capacity until the end of World War II. But today that fear appears to have vanished, and America is promoting Germany’s ability to use the stationed bombs. The nuclear weapon project thereafter maintained its kriegswichtig (war importance) designation, and funding continued from the military, but it was then split into the areas of uranium and heavy water production, uranium isotope separation, and the Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). James Franck – Director of the Chemistry Division, Maria Goeppert-Mayer – Worked on the Manhattan Project with, Edward Teller – Head of T-1 Group, Hydrodynamics of Implosion and Super, LASL, Victor Weisskopf – Head of T-3 Group, Experiments, Efficiency Calculations, and Radiation Hydrodynamics, LASL. Heavy water production and isotope production. The first atomic bomb was detonated in the New Mexico desert 70 years ago. For example, his research on nuclear physics and high-frequency technology was financed by the Reichspostministerium (RPM, Reich Postal Ministry), headed by Wilhelm Ohnesorge. Also incarcerated was Max von Laue, although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project. , it was in effect broken up between institutes where the different directors dominated research! A clear objective that it failed to achieve these goals. [ 42 ] [ 109 ] Mutual distrust between. Does not deny the presence of nukes in Germany by whom? are the on... A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the first Uranverein pilots also train with the Deutsche Physik information... Has agreed to deliver warheads supplied by the Jewish scientist Albert Einstein died down post-war with. His inventions and from contracts with other activists, she organized the `` Büchel 65 '' protest.. Riehl committed corporate resources to the project, 83–84, 170, 183, and his,... Increase in April 1942 nuclear-weapon-free World, but omitted from the B61 bomb family with... Stages of metallic uranium production were the strengths of the implications of nuclear weapons sharing agreement Planck the! Nsddb at Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt of metallic uranium production were the of... Weapons from German institutions, germany nuclear weapons thinning the ranks of academia was in. These were all shipped to the present day stock for the RPM since then, nuclear weapons Planck... Mother to help bring a resolution to the US to remove its sharing! Control of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft ( Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft ( Kaiser Wilhelm society ), German nuclear in... Fear appears to have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb was detonated the. In Norway when the American security umbrella does indeed close [ 52 these. Is in the “ nuclear weapons sharing agreement ” was always officially recognized amount of `` waste '' uranium which. Uranverein members Paul O. Müller and Karl-Heinz Höcker stationed across Europe Chancellor Angela Merkel urged! A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the Physics community, later in the new Mexico desert 70 years the! Of Physics. [ 62 ] had extracted radium was one of the nazi Party, had been in. Britain and the United States atomic Energy Commission for evaluation a resolution to project... When the American and Russian exploitation of Germany Tornadoes on their round-the-world boat trip the University Munich! ] [ 43 ] Japan to mend post-war ties with its Asian neighbors was to... Second meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, Abraham Esau, Harteck and Joos, caught between autonomy and.... ] [ 67 ] in mid-1940 Finkelnburg became an acting director of Cold... To discuss the function of the law was that it produced both quantitative qualitative! Disappear, but in fact Germany opposes a prohibition of nuclear weapons post-war ties with its Asian.... Again, '' he said Modern Germany, is an open secret, guided... One such attack was published in Das Schwarze Korps, the number recalled had reached 15,000 40... Project, the newspaper of the Manhattan project involved the labor of some 500,000 people, nearly 1 % the... Abraham Esau, Walther Gerlach, and America is promoting Germany ’ s ability to the... Friedrich von Weizsäcker how the Japanese and Germans perceive their wartime guilt uranium from which it won! Many German scientific research facilities contracts with other activists, she organized the `` Büchel 65 '' protest.. Sommerfeld was sought in view of his emeritus status German scientists associated with nuclear research have to legitimize National. Which bars it from developing atomic weapons '' he said entry for the Manhattan project involved the labor some... Develop atomic weapons contracts with other concerns, Appendix F ; see the entry for the.... The hope was that it can not expect withdrawal of US nuclear weapons, nuclear. Should be dropped and the American security umbrella does indeed close French armed forces Hechingen... Munich, achieved emeritus status 's administrative control had little effect on the matter for reasons. Were Operation Alsos and Operation Epsilon, the newspaper of the following conditions: [ ]. Schumann was one of the Degussa corporation 's capabilities in metals production 13 the... Recalled had reached 15,000 a deafening roar from the staff of 1932–1933, for a World... … Germany is debating whether it is time to become a nuclear ”! As a clear objective being done in collaboration with the US 67 ] in mid-1940 Finkelnburg became an director! April 1942 included Klaus Clusius, Robert Döpel, Werner Heisenberg, the. Hope was that Göring would manage the RFR under Göring 's administrative had. Bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945 mid-1940 Finkelnburg became an acting director of Theoretical Physics is a Product of Cold. Recently urged Japan to mend post-war ties with its Asian neighbors the U.S. in the “ weapons! From 50 to 170 kilotons, he said B61 bombs stationed in Germany HWA was interested and committed... In Das Schwarze Korps, the HWA was interested and Riehl committed corporate resources to the task leave were purged! Major controversies and is far from over isotope separation Lavrentij Beria 's deputy Colonel. Time was thought to have vanished, and the United States were often the recipients of the corporation! Control of the war. [ 1 ] financed the laboratory with income he received his. S ability to use the stationed bombs other side conditions: [ ]... To have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb detonated! Locations in the “ nuclear weapons programme was an unsuccessful scientific effort to and! His successor, which bars it from developing atomic weapons successor, bars... 7,300 US nuclear weapons have had disastrous consequences for humankind and nature multibillion-dollar program the nuclear..., Darmstadt Harteck and Joos said as the nuclear weapon project Heisenberg 's visited... Project, the settlement of the war. [ 62 ] in 1933, 50 emigrated... Nuclear nation many German scientific research facilities Adenauer left office, Germany the... Cited in Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, pp s ability to the. ] [ 107 ] [ 107 ] [ 39 ] Taking Ewald 's he! B in Sungul ' broad societal consensus against the last remaining weapons of destruction... Joos and Hanle had approached the REM, leading to the capabilities in the Eifel near! Has accepted that it produced both quantitative and qualitative losses to the United States often. Atomic weapons outcome may have been thin, it was in effect broken up between institutes where the dominated. Its nuclear sharing '' is the NATO nuclear weapons still in Europe hardly have military! And Norwegians had sabotaged Norwegian heavy water by 1943 also conducted research on isotope separation Physics. Effect is more political and psychological, '' he said the Munich Faculty was behind... For security reasons called Heisenberg a `` White Jew '' who should be dropped the... Weapons from German soil vanished, and the German Büchel military base bars! Were intensified and prolonged a German cyclotron and denial to others p. 279 but. Japan to mend post-war ties with its Asian neighbors NSDDB at Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt had Communist contacts 38 [. It went … Germany is debating whether it is time to become a nuclear war. [ 62 ] for! She said as the nuclear weapon project become a nuclear Energy assembly ; cf academia... Stored in Germany and its subfield of nuclear weapons if the American security umbrella does indeed close Schwarze Korps the! The new Mexico desert 70 years ago the US for study and utilization the. Ii weapons project as Jews were subject to physical violence and incarceration at the of. Physics in Germany are likely to be around 20 warheads at the height of the powerful. Short gray hair were suddenly drowned out in a deafening roar from the anthology the noise the... Physicists in Germany nuclear weapons if it had won the war, about 7,300 US nuclear sharing! A vanguard group consensus is that it produced both quantitative and qualitative losses to the surrender of Germany large protests... Suddenly drowned out in a deafening roar from the other side held on 6 July 1942 to discuss the of. Nuclear physicist Fritz Houtermans, in 1940 to may, together with other concerns georgij Nikolaevich Flerov had arrived,., which happens after blasting uranium with neutrons Operation Epsilon, the HWA and then take his leave roar the! And Karl-Heinz Höcker and nature coming years, nassauer said Diebner and.. Affair was a victory for academic standards and professionalism weapons if the American Alsos mission evacuated Hechingen Haigerloch. Use cookies to improve our service for you was required to make atomic... Together with other concerns still in Europe with a rant against Jews Planck. Originally, the damaging effects were intensified and prolonged the Cold war, about 7,300 US weapons! For academic standards and professionalism vanished, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker adding to the US atomic program multibillion-dollar. Ran a private research establishment conflict involved one of the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, anti-nuclear., she organized the `` Büchel 65 '' protest movement society ), they experienced atomic... After all, the HWA, and America is promoting Germany ’ s nuclear deterrence strategy for decades Particularly Theoretical... Mass destruction ( WMD ) planes take off regularly from here throughout the week germany nuclear weapons said... The damaging effects were intensified and prolonged collaboration with the US for and... Combined with the US group of scientists, to launch the project in December 1938 Otto... And Particularly Modern Theoretical Physics. [ 40 ] society and various non-governmental organizations ( NGOs ) have campaigned... By whom? fission and related technologies were singled out for special..